Bangladesh

1. Strategic importance and historical foundations

Bangladesh occupies a pivotal position between India’s eastern mainland, the Northeast and the Bay of Bengal. Its territory adjoins five Indian states and lies close to the Siliguri Corridor, which connects the Northeast with the rest of India. Cooperation can reduce transport distances, open additional access routes and integrate border regions into regional production networks. Bangladesh is therefore simultaneously a neighbourhood partner, an Act East gateway and an important participant in Bay of Bengal cooperation.

The relationship rests on linguistic, cultural and economic links as well as India’s support for Bangladesh’s Liberation War. In 1971, India received approximately ten million refugees from then East Pakistan and supported Bangladesh’s emergence as an independent state. Recognition on 6 December and the surrender of Pakistani forces in Dhaka on 16 December remain important historical reference points. Subsequent relations fluctuated with changes in Bangladesh’s domestic politics, security policies and perceptions of Indian influence.

Strategic importance should not obscure Bangladesh’s agency. Its governments seek export markets, investment, climate resilience and diversified external partnerships. Effective Indian diplomacy must therefore reconcile India’s security requirements with Bangladesh’s expectations of sovereign equality and tangible economic benefits. Shared history is an asset, but cannot substitute for contemporary public trust.

• Principal regional platforms include BIMSTEC, the BBIN framework, SAARC and the Indian Ocean Rim Association.
• For GS-II, connect Bangladesh with neighbourhood diplomacy, cooperative federalism, regional connectivity and the domestic determinants of foreign policy.

2. Boundary settlement, border management and security

Boundary cooperation provides the strongest evidence that difficult bilateral disputes can be resolved through negotiation. The 1974 Land Boundary Agreement, supplemented by the 2011 Protocol, addressed enclaves, adverse possessions and undemarcated segments. Following India’s constitutional amendment, 111 Indian enclaves in Bangladesh and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves in India were exchanged in 2015. Residents received a citizenship choice, helping end prolonged uncertainty over public services, political representation and legal identity.

The maritime boundary was settled through a 2014 arbitral award under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Acceptance of the award reduced uncertainty in the Bay of Bengal and created a clearer basis for fisheries management, offshore resource activity and maritime cooperation. Together, the land and maritime settlements demonstrate the value of legal mechanisms backed by political consent.

Operational challenges nevertheless persist along densely populated, riverine and economically interconnected border areas. These include trafficking, narcotics, cattle smuggling, irregular migration and document fraud. Bangladeshi action against anti-India insurgent networks has significantly benefited security in the Northeast. Cooperation should combine intelligence exchange and coordinated border management with proportionate law enforcement. Border deaths can undermine broader goodwill; livelihood opportunities, lawful crossing arrangements and accountability are therefore security instruments as well as humanitarian concerns.

• Distinguish irregular migration from trafficking, refugee protection and legitimate cross-border mobility.
• Border management requires coordination among the BSF, Border Guard Bangladesh, civil administrations and affected communities.

3. Trade, connectivity, energy and development partnership

Bangladesh is one of India’s leading trading partners in South Asia. Bilateral merchandise trade was approximately US$12.9 billion in financial year 2023–24, with Indian exports substantially exceeding imports. India supplies cotton, machinery, petroleum products and other industrial inputs, while Bangladesh’s exports include garments and manufactured goods. The trade imbalance is politically sensitive, but the policy response should emphasise productive investment, improved market access and supply-chain integration rather than treating every deficit as evidence of exploitation.

Connectivity cooperation seeks to restore routes disrupted by Partition and create new multimodal networks. The Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade facilitates river transport, while arrangements for Indian cargo through Chattogram and Mongla ports improve potential access to the Northeast. The Akhaura–Agartala cross-border rail link was inaugurated in November 2023. However, infrastructure inauguration must be distinguished from dependable commercial operation: customs procedures, rolling stock, last-mile links and predictable transit rules determine actual benefits.

Energy interdependence includes electricity trade through the Bheramara and Tripura–Comilla interconnections, supply from the Godda power plant and the India–Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline, inaugurated in March 2023 to transport diesel from India to Parbatipur. The Maitree thermal power project at Rampal represents another major joint undertaking. Such projects can strengthen energy security, but pricing, payment sustainability and environmental concerns require transparent management.

India has extended three major sovereign lines of credit amounting to about US$8 billion for infrastructure and other development projects. Delivery matters as much as financial commitments: land acquisition, procurement conditions, project preparation and implementation capacity can delay outcomes. Border haats, scholarships, medical travel and digital links can spread the benefits of cooperation beyond capital-intensive projects.

• A proposed Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement should be assessed through market access, investment, services and adjustment costs.
• Bangladesh’s scheduled graduation from least developed country status in 2026 increases the importance of future trade arrangements.

4. River diplomacy, ecology and human security

The sharing of 54 rivers makes water diplomacy a permanent feature of bilateral relations. The 1996 Ganga Water Sharing Treaty governs dry-season sharing at Farakka through an agreed formula and monitoring arrangements. Its 30-year duration makes timely review especially important. The unresolved Teesta issue illustrates the difficulty of allocating limited dry-season flows among competing agricultural, ecological and domestic needs.

Water negotiations also reveal the importance of Indian federalism. The proposed Teesta agreement was not concluded in 2011 amid objections from West Bengal. Although foreign affairs fall within the Union’s domain, implementation and political legitimacy require meaningful engagement with affected states. Technical evidence, reliable flow data and compensation or adaptation measures can help reconcile subnational concerns with national diplomatic objectives.

A basin-oriented approach should supplement allocation negotiations. Priorities include flood forecasting, sediment management, riverbank erosion, pollution control and climate adaptation. Cooperation on the Sundarbans is particularly valuable because cyclones, salinity intrusion, biodiversity loss and livelihood insecurity cross political boundaries. Bangladesh’s hosting of a large Rohingya refugee population in Cox’s Bazar also affects regional stability. India should support humanitarian assistance and conditions for safe, voluntary and dignified return to Myanmar, without conflating refugees with security threats.

• Water cooperation works best when dry-season scarcity and monsoon flood management are treated as connected issues.
• Joint scientific assessments can reduce misinformation, though technical cooperation cannot replace political agreement.

5. Political transition, external competition and India’s policy choices

The August 2024 political upheaval, Sheikh Hasina’s departure and the formation of an interim government under Muhammad Yunus created a major diplomatic challenge. India needed to preserve working relations with Bangladesh’s institutions while addressing border security, continuity of projects and the safety of minorities and other vulnerable communities. The episode underlined the risks of allowing a bilateral relationship to become publicly identified with one leader or party.

China is an important source of infrastructure finance, trade and defence equipment for Bangladesh. India should assess specific strategic implications without assuming that every Chinese project represents an anti-India alignment. Bangladesh also engages Japan, the United States and European partners. Competitive project delivery, transparent finance and regional public goods offer India a more sustainable response than demands for exclusive strategic loyalty.

The way forward is broad-based engagement with government institutions, political stakeholders, businesses, universities and civil society, consistent with non-interference. India should prioritise reliable connectivity, humane border practices, water negotiations, project completion and evidence-based public communication. Bangladesh’s stability cannot be secured through bilateral diplomacy alone, but predictable Indian policy can reduce mistrust. For Mains answers, the central proposition is that strategic reassurance and sovereign equality must reinforce, rather than displace, practical economic cooperation.

• Avoid equating criticism of a particular government with hostility towards the neighbouring country.
• Evaluate new political developments separately from durable geographic, economic and institutional interests.

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