Anglo-Sikh Wars

1. The Sikh kingdom and the frontier with British India

Maharaja Ranjit Singh transformed competing Sikh misls, or military confederacies, into a powerful kingdom centred on Lahore. His domains included much of Punjab, Kashmir, Multan and Peshawar. Although Sikh in its ruling identity, the state employed Hindu, Muslim and European officials and soldiers. Its army combined traditional cavalry with infantry and artillery trained along European lines, creating a major military power beyond the Company’s northwestern frontier.

The Treaty of Amritsar of 25 April 1809 established an important boundary between Ranjit Singh’s expansion and British influence. He accepted British protection over the cis-Sutlej states, broadly those on the eastern or left-bank side of the Sutlej, while retaining freedom to expand elsewhere. This arrangement helped preserve peace during his lifetime. The 1809 treaty must not be confused with the Treaty of Amritsar of 1846 concerning Gulab Singh and Kashmir.

After Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, rapid changes of ruler and violent court rivalries weakened central authority. Kharak Singh, Nau Nihal Singh and Sher Singh did not establish durable control. In 1843, the young Duleep Singh became Maharaja, with his mother, Rani Jindan Kaur, acting as regent. The Khalsa army increasingly intervened in politics through soldiers’ councils, while court factions competed for its support.

2. Causes and course of the First Anglo-Sikh War

The First War resulted from the interaction of instability at Lahore and British military preparations along the frontier. British victories in Afghanistan’s aftermath and the annexation of Sind in 1843 heightened Sikh fears of encirclement. The concentration of troops and supplies near the Sutlej deepened mistrust. At Lahore, some influential courtiers also regarded the politically assertive Khalsa army as a threat to their own positions.

In December 1845, the Sikh army crossed the Sutlej, providing the immediate occasion for war. Lord Hardinge was Governor-General, while Sir Hugh Gough was British Commander-in-Chief. The Sikh leadership included Lal Singh and Tej Singh. Their conduct during crucial operations has often been criticised as disloyal or deliberately obstructive. Nevertheless, the outcome should not be explained by betrayal alone: divided command, operational decisions and British military resources also mattered.

The main engagements were Mudki on 18 December 1845, Ferozeshah on 21–22 December, Aliwal on 28 January 1846 and Sobraon on 10 February. British forces suffered heavy casualties, especially at Ferozeshah. Before Aliwal, Ranjodh Singh Majithia inflicted a reverse on British forces at Baddowal. Sir Harry Smith subsequently won at Aliwal. At Sobraon, the British broke the Sikh defensive position near the Sutlej; the loss of the river crossing contributed to devastating Sikh casualties and opened the route to Lahore.

3. The settlement of 1846: sovereignty sharply reduced

The Treaty of Lahore, signed on 9 March 1846, ended the First War. Duleep Singh remained Maharaja, but the kingdom surrendered the Jalandhar Doab, between the Beas and Sutlej, to the Company. A war indemnity of 1.5 crore rupees was imposed, and the Sikh army was reduced. Lahore also surrendered territory in the hills, including Kashmir, in part settlement of the indemnity. These provisions substantially weakened the kingdom’s territorial, financial and military foundations.

A supplementary agreement of 11 March provided for a British force to remain temporarily at Lahore, with its expenses borne by the Lahore government. Under the separate Treaty of Amritsar of 16 March 1846, the Company transferred Kashmir and associated hill territories to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees, recognising his position as Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir under British supremacy. This settlement created the Dogra-ruled princely state.

The Treaty of Bhyrowal, also spelt Bhairowal, of 16 December 1846 extended British control further. A council of regency of eight chiefs was established under the supervision of a British Resident, who possessed extensive authority over state affairs. Rani Jindan was excluded from the regency. The maintenance of British troops remained a charge on Lahore. Thus, the First War did not immediately annex Punjab, but the subsequent arrangements substantially hollowed out its independence.

4. The Second Anglo-Sikh War and annexation

The immediate outbreak occurred at Multan in April 1848. During the transfer of administration from Diwan Mulraj to his successor, two British officers, Patrick Vans Agnew and William Anderson, were attacked and subsequently killed. Mulraj became the centre of resistance. The disturbance widened as dissatisfaction with British interference and the treatment of Rani Jindan combined with resentment among sections of the Sikh military and ruling elite.

Sher Singh Attariwala, initially sent against the Multan uprising, joined the resistance in September 1848. His father, Chattar Singh Attariwala, was associated with opposition in Hazara. Lord Dalhousie, now Governor-General, treated the expanding conflict as grounds for a decisive settlement. Gough again commanded the principal British field army. Multan fell in January 1849 after a prolonged siege.

The campaign included Ramnagar on 22 November 1848 and Chillianwala on 13 January 1849. Chillianwala produced heavy British losses and no decisive strategic result, provoking criticism of Gough. At Gujarat on 21 February 1849, concentrated British artillery helped secure the decisive victory. The remaining Sikh forces surrendered in March. Dalhousie annexed Punjab on 29 March 1849, deposed Duleep Singh and pensioned him. Annexation arose from war and conquest, not a failure of succession under the Doctrine of Lapse.

5. Consequences and historical significance

The wars eliminated a major independent power and extended Company rule to the northwestern frontier. Punjab’s strategic importance increased because of its proximity to Afghanistan and the mountain approaches to India. Annexation also ended the sovereign Lahore monarchy; under the annexation settlement, the Koh-i-Noor diamond was surrendered to the British Crown.

A Board of Administration was established in 1849, initially comprising Henry Lawrence, John Lawrence and Charles Mansel. Its work included revenue administration, policing, disarmament and public works. In 1853, the board was replaced by a Chief Commissioner, John Lawrence. Sikh and Punjabi recruitment into the colonial army subsequently expanded. During the uprising of 1857, Punjab supplied important troops and resources to the British, although resistance and disaffection also occurred within the province.

• Distinguish political subordination in 1846 from formal annexation in 1849.
• Remember the pairing: Hardinge and the First War; Dalhousie and the Second War.
• Separate the Battle of Gujarat in Punjab from the present-day Indian state of Gujarat.

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